The theory of political religion concerns governmental ideologies whose cultural and spiritual aspect is so strong that it takes an overwhelming hold of peoples lives that can be only considered as religious.[2] In addition to basic forms of politics, like parliament and elections, it also holds an aspect of Sacralization related to the institutions held within the regime and provides also the inner measures traditionally considered to be a religious territory, such as Ethics, Values, Symbols, Myths, Rituals and for example a national Liturgical calendar. State religion is a typical form of political religion. Political religions generally vie with existing traditional religions, and try, if possible, to replace or eradicate them. The term was first proposed by the political scientist, Hans Maier.[3]
The term is sometimes treated as synonymous with civil religion, but although some scholars use the terms as equivalent, others see a useful distinction, using "civil religion" as something weaker, which functions more as a socially unifying and essentially conservative force, where a political religion is radically transformational, even apocalyptic.[4]
The term is sometimes used outside academia, often with meanings tangential to or opposite to the sociological usage (for example, applying it to a church), with the use intended as a derogatory description of excessive adherence to something political or ideological. Even when used correctly, supporters of an ideology will generally reject the application of the term "political religion".
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The term political religion draws on the aspects of religion which can be found in certain secular ideologies. The scientific schools practicing the study on religious aspects of politics include at least Political science (for example William Connolly), Sociology (Christoph Deutschmann), History (Emilio Gentile), Theology (Oliver O'Donovan) and Psychology. A political religion often occupies the same ethical, psychological and sociological space as a traditional religion, and as a result it often displaces or co-opts existing religious organizations and beliefs. The most central definition of a political religion is the Sacralization of politics, for example an overwhelming religious feeling when serving one`s country, as in the case of the Founding Fathers.[5][6] Typically a political religion is considered to be secular, but more radical forms of it are also Transcendental .[7][8]
The first scholars to use the concept of political religion (or synonyms such as "secular religion", "lay religion" or "public religion") were Protestant and Catholic intellectuals and theologians, such as Luigi Sturzo, Adolf Keller, Paul Tillich, Gerhard Leibholz, Waldemar Gurian, Eric Voegelin, Raymond Aron and Walter Benjamin.[9] They saw it as a response to the existential void and Nihilism caused by modernity, mass society and the rise of a bureaucratic state, and in political religions "the rebellion against the religion of God" reached its climax.[9] They also described them as ‘pseudo-religions’, ‘substitute religions’, ‘surrogate religions’, ‘religions manipulated by man’ and ‘anti-religions’.[10] The secularization of the twentieth century had created a spiritual void which could be filled by an ideology claiming also a hold on ethical and identitetical matters as well, making the political religions based on totalitarianism, universalism and messianic missions (such as Manifest Destiny[11]) possible.[3][12][13]
Key qualities often (not all are always strongly present) shared by religion (particularly cults) and political religion include
Not all of these aspects are present in any one political religion; this is only a list of some common aspects.
Political religions vie with existing religions, and try, if possible, to replace or eradicate them.[3] Loyalty to other entities, such as a church or a deity are often seen to interfere with loyalty to the political religion. The authority of potential religious leaders also presents a threat to the authority of the political religion. As a result, some or all religious sects are either suppressed or banned. An existing sect may be converted into a state religion, but dogma and personnel may be modified to suit the needs of the party or state.
Juan Linz has posited the friendly form of separation of church and state as the counterpole of political religion but describes the hostile form of separation of church and state as moving toward political religion as found in totalitarianism.[14]
Loyalty to the state or political party and acceptance of the government/party ideology is paramount. Dissenters may be expelled, ostracized, discriminated against, imprisoned, "re-educated", or killed. Loyalty oaths or membership in a dominant (or sole) political party may be required for employment, government services, or simply as routine. Criticism of the government may be a serious crime. Enforcements range from ostracism from one's neighbors to execution. In a fundamental political religion you are either with the system or against the system.
A political religion often elevates its leaders to near-godlike status. Displays of leaders in the form of posters or statues may be mandated in public areas and even private homes. Children may be required to learn the state's version of the leaders' biographies in school. The Leaders might be taken as messianic figures, who among the chanting crowds can promise miraculous things which seem impossible for people to reach without the current saviour.
According to Emilio Gentile, "Fascism was the first and prime instance of a modern political religion."[15] "This religion sacralized the state and assigned it the primary educational task of transforming the mentality, the character, and the customs of Italians. The aim was to create a 'new man,' a believer in and an observing member of the cult of Fascism."[16]
"The argument [that fascism was a ‘political religion’] tends to involve three main claims: i) that fascism was characterized by a religious form, particularly in terms of language and ritual; ii) that fascism was a sacralized form of totalitarianism, which legitimized violence in defence of the nation and regeneration of a fascist 'new man'; and iii) that fascism took on many of the functions of religion for a broad swathe of society."[17]
"Among committed [Nazi] believers, a mythic world of eternally strong heroes, demons, fire and sword - in a word, the fantasy world of the nursery - displaced reality."[18] Heinrich Himmler was fascinated by the occult, and sought to turn the SS into the basis of an official state cult.[19]
Klaus-Georg Riegel, in his article "Marxism-Leninism as a political religion", said "Lenin's utopian design of a revolutionary community of virtuosi as a typical political religion of an intelligentsia longing for an inner-worldly salvation, a socialist paradise without exploitation and alienation, to be implanted in the Russian backward society at the outskirts of the industrialised and modernised Western Europe."[20]
The North Korean government has promulgated Juche as a political alternative to traditional religion. The doctrine advocates a strong nationalist propaganda basis and is fundamentally opposed to Christianity and Buddhism, the two largest religions on the Korean peninsula. Juche theoreticians have, however, incorporated religious ideas into the state ideology. According to government figures, Juche is the largest political religion in North Korea. The public practice of all other religions is overseen and subject to heavy surveillance by the state.
During the long rule of president Saparmurat Niyazov large pictures and statues of him could be seen in public places in Turkmenistan. In an interview with the television news program "60 Minutes", Niyazov said the people of Turkmenistan placed them there voluntarily because they love him so much, and that he did not originally want them there. In addition, he granted himself the title "Türkmenbaşy", meaning "Leader of all Ethnic Turkmens" in the Turkmen language. A book purportedly authored by Niyazov, Ruhnama ("Book of the Soul") was required reading in educational institutions and was often displayed and treated with the same respect as the Qur'an. The study of Ruhnama in the academic system was scaled down but to some extent continued after Niyazov's death (in 2006), as of 2008.